Farhad Ghadiri, Moslem Bahmani, Abbas Bahram,
Volume 15, Issue 29 (4-2025)
Abstract
Aim: One of the recent research challenges in the field of attentional focus instructions, are the study of its effects on the performance of elite athletes in continuous tasks. The aim of this study was to compare the effects of different attentional focus instructions on performance of agility in elite futsal players.
Methods Participants included 12 elite futsal players (mean age 23.91±1.56) that were selected from the first league of Division Qom via convenience sampling method. Participants were asked to perform the agility L run test under three attentional focus instructions (the internal, external and control) in three trials. Rrepeated measure Analysis of Variance and paired t test were used for analysis of data.
Result: The results showed a significant effects of the type of attentional focus instructions on test execution time. Analyses showed that performance in the external focus of attention was higher than the internal focus conditions. Also, the result demonstrated that there is no significant difference between internal focus of attention and control conditions, and also between external focus of attention and control condition.
Conclusion: The results of this study provide evidence that in skilled athletes, executing the continuous tasks improve through verbal instructions that conduct focus of attention externally.
Mohammad Taghi Aghdasi, Behzad Mohammadi Orangi, Rsoul Yaali,
Volume 15, Issue 29 (4-2025)
Abstract
Aim: Inclusive education refers to the placement of people with disabilities alongside their peers. Recent studies have found this method to be effective when it comes to manipulating the environment. The study investigated the effects of an inclusive education learning method applied in an extracurricular physical education to promote self-esteem and motor proficiency in a child with developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD).
Methods: The research is a critical case study that involved one obese boy with DCD (age =8 years, height=127 cm and weight =33 kg) who participated in physical education activities with 14 other children without disability over a period of 9 weeks. Three tools, Cooper Smith self-esteem questionnaire, developmental coordination disorder questionnaire and Bruininks-Oseretsky-2 test and semi-structured interviews were used to collect data.
Results: Results of semi-structured interviews showed independence, belief, pleasure, family relationships, educational relationships, and social relationships improved. The Cooper Smith questionnaire also showed general (10 score), family (5 score), social (4 score), and educational self-esteem (6 score) increased. While motor proficiency increased (9 score), the body mass index decreased (1.24 score).
Conclusion: Results emphasized the importance of applying nonlinear pedagogy in physical education by manipulating the environment and the task without direct instructions and feedback in inclusive settings.
Yaser Khanjari, Elahe Arab Ameri, Mehdi Shahbazi, Shahzad Tahmasebi, Fariba Bahrami,
Volume 15, Issue 29 (4-2025)
Abstract
Aim: Although much research has been conducted on the concept of motor learning at the performance level, this concept has not been investigated at the level of EMG patterns and the comparison of these patterns in the dominant and non-dominant hand. The aim of this study was to investigate simultaneous changes in EMG pattern during learning dart skill in dominant and non-dominant hands.
Method: The participants of the present study consisted of 10 non-athlete students with a mean age of 23 ± 2.5 years who were randomly selected from the student community of the University of Tehran and divided into two groups of dominant hand (5) and non-dominant hand (5). Repeated measures ANOVA were used to measure data at the dart throwing performance and changes in EMG activity.
Results: The results showed a significant decrease in the absolute error of dart throwing at the performance level and an increase in EMG activity at the muscle level along with a decrease in muscle co-contraction in the acquisition and retention stages in both groups. Also, there was no significant difference between EMG activity in the dominant and non-dominant hand groups after skill acquisition.
Conclusion: Generally, the results of this study showed that along with relatively constant changes in performance during dart skill learning, relatively constant changes in EMG patterns also occur, so that the concept of motor learning is also observed at the muscle level. Also, the results of this study supported the existence of the same motor program for dominant and non-dominant hand control, even in the conditions of bilateral transfer control.
Maryam Khalaji, Mahin Aghdaei, Alireza Farsi, Alessandro Piras,
Volume 15, Issue 29 (4-2025)
Abstract
Objectives: Using auditory concurrent feedback with the goal of gaze path learning is a novel method in the attention field. The present study aimed to determine the effect of bisensory feedback using eye movement sonification on the decision-making of the badminton clear shot direction.
Method: In a semi-experimental strategy, with pre-post design without a control group and clinical method, participants performed recognizing the direction of the shot under unisensory and bisensory training conditions. Response accuracy, response time, and fixation duration were measured in the pre-test, immediate retention, and delayed retention.
Results: The results showed that in the immediate and delayed retention, the bisensory group had higher response accuracy and shorter response time than the unisensory group. The bisensory group had a longer fixation duration in key areas than the unisensory group in both times.
Conclusion: The use of auditory feedback can probably be considered as a way to improve decision-making skills at the novice level.
Mehdi Babapuor, Jalal Dehghanizade,
Volume 15, Issue 29 (4-2025)
Abstract
Introduction: Motor learning has been measured differently based on two essential factors of OPTIMAL theory (autonomy support and increased expectations). Giving choice has been widely used in this field, but it has not been fully investigated in the learning of throwing skills according to these two factors.
Purpose: The present study aimed to investigate the benefits of giving choices using the order of practice choice on learning the putting accuracy skills and the psychological components of perceived autonomy and self-efficacy beliefs.
Method: In this quasi-experimental study, 24 novice participants with a mean age of 24.87 ± 3.26 were randomly assigned to experimental (n=12) and yoked (n=12) groups. Immediately after a 10-trial pretest, participants practiced three new tasks (visual cues, auditory cues, chest bar) to putt a golf ball into the center hole in six blocks. Then, the learning was measured during a 24-hour follow-up period under conditions completely similar to the pretest (10 trials).
Findings: The study assessed participants' skill accuracy, perceived autonomy, and self-efficacy across all three experimental phases. Mixed-design analysis of variance revealed that the order in which practice was structured significantly influenced golf putting accuracy, self-efficacy, and perceived autonomy (p ≥ 0.05).
Conclusion: The possibility of task-related small choices enhances perceived autonomy self-efficacy and, which leads to improved motor learning. Therefore, these findings are consistent with optimal theory.
Afsane Nejad Ghani, Mohammad Kazem Vaez Mosavi, Saleh Rafie,
Volume 15, Issue 29 (4-2025)
Abstract
Introduction and Aim: Physical literacy is a topic that has attracted the attention of sports and health science researchers in recent years, and research is necessary and important to promote physical literacy. In this regard, the aim of this study was to the effect of physical education classroom of dynamic schools on the development of physical literacy of 9-year-old students.
Methods: To achieve this goal, one class from dynamic schools (31 people) and one class as control group (34 people) were selected. To assess physical literacy, the Canadian Assessment of Physical Literacy was used, which evaluates general body literacy as well as the subcategories of daily behaviors, knowledge and understanding, physical competence, and motivation and self-confidence.
Results: The results of covariance analysis showed that there is no significant difference between the two groups for the variable of daily behavior (p=0.506) and knowledge and understanding (p=0.052). But this difference is significant on physical competence (p=0.010), motivation and self-confidence (p=0.01) and the total score of physical literacy (p=0.000). With this solution, all variables improved more in the experimental group than the control group from pre-test to post-test.
Conclusion: In general, the results of this study confirmed the positive impact of dynamic schools on physical literacy, which reveals the need to pay attention to the activities of dynamic schools. And its results can be used in schools and kindergartens.
Sayed Kavos Salehi, Farzaneh Hatami, Fatemeh Norouzi,
Volume 15, Issue 30 (12-2025)
Abstract
Background: Cyberspace dependence can affect cognitive and motor functions, including learning and memory.
Aim: The present study aimed to investigate the effect of cyberspace dependence on explicit and implicit learning of a motor sequence task.
Methods: Participants were 48 high school students aged 16 to 18 years, selected through convenience sampling and divided into four groups of 12: cyberspace dependent–explicit learning, cyberspace dependent–implicit learning, non-dependent–explicit learning, and non-dependent–implicit learning. Young’s Internet Addiction Test was used to distinguish cyberspace-dependent from non-dependent individuals, and the Serial Reaction Time Task (SRTT) software was applied to assess motor learning. Data were analyzed using mixed-design ANOVA with repeated measures.
Results: The findings revealed that cyberspace dependence had a significant effect on explicit and implicit learning of the motor sequence task (P<0/05). Specifically, non-dependent participants outperformed their cyberspace-dependent peers in both explicit and implicit learning conditions.
Conclusion: The results suggest that cyberspace dependence may weaken both explicit and implicit learning. Accordingly, it is recommended that schools and other educational environments implement engaging motor activity programs to reduce excessive cyberspace use among students and to promote motor learning.
Hasan Alikhani, Samira Naziri Nilash, Asiye Mirza Aghajani, Narjes Sayari,
Volume 15, Issue 30 (12-2025)
Abstract
Aim: This study aimed to investigate the effect of perceptual–motor training programs on Stroop performance and the enhancement of theory of mind among 8–12-year-old girls in Rasht city. This study aimed to investigate the effect of perceptual–motor training programs on Stroop performance and the enhancement of theory of mind among 8–12-year-old girls in Rasht city.
methods: This quasi-experimental study employed a pretest–posttest design with a control group. Participants were 24 children (mean age = 10.5 ± 1.2 years) selected through convenience sampling and then randomly assigned to equal experimental and control groups (n = 12 each). The intervention program lasted eight weeks, comprising 16 sessions of 45 minutes each, and included exercises targeting balance, spatial awareness, temporal awareness, body awareness, and orientation. Stroop performance was assessed using the computerized Stroop test, while theory of mind was evaluated using the 38-item Steerneman Scale. Data were analyzed using independent t-tests in SPSS version 23, with the significance level set at p < 0.05.
Results: The results showed that the experimental group demonstrated significantly greater improvements than the control group in emotion recognition and pretence (p = 0.023), understanding of false belief (p = 0.011), comprehension of humor and second-order false belief (p = 0.048), and Stroop reaction time (p = 0.015).
Conclusion: According to the findings, perceptual–motor training can effectively improve Stroop task performance and theory of mind in children.
Maryam Nasery, Marziye Ballali, Zahra Entezari,
Volume 15, Issue 30 (12-2025)
Abstract
Aim: The aim of this study was to comparison of the effectiveness of linear and non-linear pedagogy on locomotor motor skills Performance and movement motivation in children with developmental coordination disorder.
Method: The statistical population was all children with developmental coordination disorder in Urmia. The statistical sample consisted of 30 boys (age = 9.35 ± 1.37) who were selected from Urmia schools using the available method. MABC-2 test was used to diagnose developmental coordination disorder, TGMD- test was used to evaluate locomotor skills, and motor motivation test was used to evaluate movement motivation. To carry out this study, the participants practiced two 50-minute sessions of motor skills interventions in two linear methods (15 people) and task manipulation (15 people) for eight weeks. Variables were measured before and after the interventions.
Result: The results of covariance analysis showed that non-linear training compared to linear training significantly improved both in movement skills (p=0.04) and motor motivation (p=0.000) than the linear group.
Conclusion: According to these results, non-linear methods considering the individual characteristics of each child are helpful for helping children with movement disorders. Considering the unique characteristics of each child helps to improve motor skills and to have enough motivation to continue the activity. Therefore, the use of non-linear methods is suggested for children with developmental coordination disorder.
Abolfazl Mehdiloo, Ehsan Zareian, Soheila Hassani, Ruhollah Mehdiloo,
Volume 15, Issue 30 (12-2025)
Abstract
Objective: Studies show that inducing a positive gender stereotype improves performance, therefore the aim of this study was to investigate the effect of inducing gender stereotypes on girls' agility performance in the context of presenting a secondary cognitive task.
Method: 14 students working in the physical education academy participated in this research. These people performed the hexagon agility task in four different contexts.
Findings: The findings showed that there is a significant difference between different fields of and by inducing stereotypes, it decreased, and according to the level of perceived difficulty, agility performance changed.
Conclusion: The results of this research showed that the induction of gender stereotypes improves performance and the provision of dual tasks also disrupts performance. According to the results of the current research, gender stereotyping can moderate the dysfunction caused by presenting the dual task.
Hanieh Ghasemian Moghadam, Hasan Mohamadzadeh,
Volume 15, Issue 30 (12-2025)
Abstract
Aim: Childhood is considered a critical period for developing motor skills through appropriate physical exercises, which ultimately enhance brain function and performance. The present study aimed to investigate the effect of sensory–motor exercises with a game sense approach on executive and motor control in children with learning disorder.
Methods: This quasi-experimental, applied research employed a pretest–posttest design with a control group. The statistical population included 36 female children with learning disorder (mean age = 8.39 ± 0.49 years) who were recruited from learning disorder centers in Mashhad and randomly assigned to two intervention groups (sensory–motor with a game sense approach, sensory–motor with a goal-oriented approach) and one control group. The intervention groups participated in sensory–motor integration training twice a week for eight weeks (60 minutes per session). During this period, the control group continued their usual activities. Executive control (inhibitory control) and motor control (gross motor skills) were assessed before and after the intervention using the Stroop Test and the Burininks-Oseretsky Test, respectively.
Results: A mixed MANOVA showed that sensory–motor exercises with a game sense approach significantly improved executive and motor control across all variables compared to the control group. In comparison with the goal-oriented group, improvements were observed only in running speed and agility (p < 0.05).
Conclusion: Sensory–motor exercises based on a play-oriented approach can serve as an effective intervention to enhance executive and motor control in children with learning disorder.
Zahra Malvandi, Shahab Parvin Pour, Marziyeh Balali, Zahra Entezari,
Volume 15, Issue 30 (12-2025)
Abstract
Aim:The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of manipulating task constraints on the performance indicators and cognitive status of the elderly.
Method:In this study, 30 healthy women elderly with mean and SD of age 57.32 ± 6.86 years were randomly selected and placed in two intervention and control groups. To assess the cognitive status of the elderly, the Floustin Brief Cognitive Status Examination Questionnaire was used, and to test the functional readiness of the Osens. Questionnaire was used in collaboration with the AAHPERD Institute. The intervention was based on the principles of nonlinear training and the duration of the intervention period was 8 weeks, 3 sessions per week of group exercises. The analysis of covariance test was used to assess the homogeneity of the slope of the regression line and to compare the mean of pre-test and post-test data. Data analysis was performed using SPSS24 software.
Results:The results showed that the applying of the task constraint manipulation training protocol led to improvement in performance indicators and mental status of the elderly in the intervention group. In addition, the results indicated that the flexibility of the control group decreased significantly from the pre-test to the post-test. The results of the analysis of covariance test by removing the effect of the pre-test showed that the body composition variable did not differ significantly from the pre-test to the post-test.
Conclusion: It seems that exercises with task constraint manipulation are effective on the functional and cognitive indicators of the elderly.
Hamid Salehi, Neda Amirpour Najafabadi,
Volume 15, Issue 30 (12-2025)
Abstract
Aims: This study examined the relationship between young athletes’ perceptions of their coaches’ achievement goal orientations—specifically task-involving and ego-involving motivational climates—and coaches’ fair play behaviors.
Methods: A total of 318 Iranian adolescent athletes (M_age = 16.60 ± 4.10 years; both male and female) from team sports (basketball and volleyball), each with at least six months of continuous training under their current coach, voluntarily participated in the study. Participants completed two subscales of the Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire-2 (PMCSQ-2)—assessing task-involving and ego-involving climates—and the Coaching Fair Play Behaviors Inventory (CFBI), which measures six dimensions of fair play behaviors: teaching, modeling, expectations/pressure, reinforcement/reward, communication, and punishment.
Results: A significant negative relationship emerged between perceived task-involving and ego-involving motivational climates. The task-involving climate was positively associated with all six CFBI dimensions (teaching, modeling, expectations/pressure, reinforcement/reward, communication, and punishment). In contrast, the ego-involving climate demonstrated negative associations with three CFBI dimensions: teaching, modeling, and expectations/pressure.
Conclusion: Coaches who actively engage in fair play behaviors—particularly through teaching, modeling, and setting clear expectations—tend to foster a task-involving motivational climate that supports athletes’ ethical development and sportsmanship. Conversely, the absence of such behaviors is linked to an ego-involving climate. These findings highlight the importance of implementing task-involving coaching strategies to integrate moral development with athletic performance, thereby fostering a positive and ethical team environment.
Leily Alizadeh,
Volume 15, Issue 30 (12-2025)
Abstract
Aim: Stereotypes consist of an organized set of characteristics and roles deemed appropriate for men and women, which can influence a person's perception, abilities, and performance. The current research aimed to psychometrically evaluate the Persian version of the Gender Stereotypes in Sports Scale.
Methods: The study's statistical population included both amateur and professional football athletes, as well as active staff and agents involved in sports teams. A total of 384 participants (200 men and 184 women) completed the Gender Stereotypes in Sports Scale through accessible means. This questionnaire consists of sixteen items measured on a five-point Likert scale. To examine the factor structure, we conducted an exploratory factor analysis using the principal components method. We assessed reliability using Cronbach's alpha and determined construct validity through confirmatory factor analysis. The results were analyzed using Amos version 26 software.
Results: The Cronbach's alpha coefficient for the questionnaire was estimated at 0.87, and the content validity index for each item was higher than 0.78. Furthermore, three factors accounted for 82.24% of the total variance. The results of the confirmatory factor analysis indicated that all indicators, including RMSEA, GFI, and AGFI, were at acceptable levels.
Conclusions: Based on the findings, the Gender Stereotypes in Sports Scale, comprising sixteen questions, demonstrates appropriate validity and reliability. It offers new research opportunities for scholars in the field.
Saeed Arsham, Mohammad Garavand, Abbas Bahram,
Volume 100, Issue 100 (10-2020)
Abstract
The aim of this study was to determine the effectiveness of the type of goal setting and self-recording on acquisition and self-regulation learning of basketball free throw. Seventy middle school student boys were selected for available and randomly allocated to 6 experimental groups and one control group. A factor ANOVA with a significant level of 5% (p < 0.05) was conducted to analyze the self-efficacy and performance data in acquisition and retention tests. The results showed that the goal-setting with the self-recording group has a higher self-efficacy and performance than the goal-setting without self-recording and the control groups in acquisition and retention test of basketball free throw. This research showed that a variety of goals can begin to combine and cause positive results in performance and learning. Self-recording is important for performance and self-efficacy and can be easily taught and used during physical education sessions.
Hamed Sabzevari, Farhad Ghadiri, Abbas Bahram, Rasol Yaali,
Volume 100, Issue 100 (10-2020)
Abstract
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between motor competence, cardiovascular fitness test and physical activity of adolescents with the role of mediation of perceived competence. The research sample consisted of 386 adolescent boys. Perceived competence was measured using Physical Ability scale of the short form of the Marshall Self-Descriptive Questionnaire (2010). From the pedometer And physical activity questionnaire for older children was used to measure physical activity, and using Bruininks-Oseretsky Test test for measuring motor competence and a 1600-meter test for cardiovascular fitness test. The results showed a significant correlation between motor competence, perceived competence, cardiovascular fitness test and physical activity. Perceived competence mediates association between motor competence and physical activity, fitness and cardiovascular fitness test. Finally, the results of the model showed that perceived competence had the most impact on the participation of adolescent physical activity. Also, motor competence has a greater effect on cardiovascular fitness test than perceived competence. According to the results of the research, educational programs should be designed and designed according to the importance of motor competence and perceived competence to improve participation of physical activity and physical fitness of adolescents.
, , ,
Volume 100, Issue 100 (10-2020)
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of learning methods analogy and explicit on the skill of the prediction service in volleyball at the time fatigue. To this purpose, 40 female students , with the range of age 18 to 24 years for the sample sampling and a simple random in four groups: learning to manifest peppy, learning explicit tired, learning analogy peppy and learning analogy tired were divided. Participants of the group learn the analogy method of simulating skills and group learning explicit from the traditional method to performing the service, hammer, volleyball. To apply the fatigue protocol Lee Owens was used. Also, to predict the extent, accuracy, and speed of execution of the participants of the software super lab was used. Data were analyzed using the test of analysis of variance two-way analysis of was. The results showed that, the effect of fatigue, the type of practice, and the interactive effect of fatigue - training on the speed prediction in the efforts to correct and the impact of fatigue , the type of training , and the interactive effect of fatigue-training on the speed prediction in efforts mistake was not significant. But the interactive effect of fatigue - practice the accuracy of prediction in the efforts to correct the (p=0/002), and the effect of the type of exercises in the wrong attempts (P=0/019) was significant. According to the results it can be said that the effect of fatigue on the accuracy of prediction depends on the type of learning (learning analogy) is an adopted person.
Abbas Bahram, Sared Arsham, Moslem Bahmani,
Volume 100, Issue 100 (10-2020)
Abstract
Few studies have investigated dimensions of attention out of laboratory settings. The aim of this study was to investigate the interaction between internal/external and associative and dissociative attention and its role in expert judo players’ technical performance during competition. mixed method approach with parallel-design was used. In the qualitative section of the study, expert judo players’ attentional strategy was explored using self-confrontation interviews. In the quantitative part of the study, differences between reported foci in successful versus unsuccessful trials was tested. Analysis of interview transcripts revealed that expert judo players had more focus on external-associative dimension in both preparation and execution phases. In addition, results of chi-square test indicated a significant difference between judo players’ focus of attention in successful versus unsuccessful trials (p < 0.05) with more focus on external-associative attention in successful trials. In conclusion, while this study does not support use or advantages of dissociative attention in skilled performers, provided more support for constrained-action hypothesis as indicated more use and advantages of adopting an external-associative focus for expert level judo players.
Mr Mohsen Mohammadi, Dr Abbas Bahram, Dr Saeeid Arsham, ,
Volume 100, Issue 100 (10-2020)
Abstract
The purpose of this research was to investigate the structure of the ball behavior in the futsal teams during the offensive phase. The type of research was observational and the data extracted from the 12 games in the training matches of the players of the futsal resistance team present at the Premier League matches of 97-98 were recorded and analyzed. Using the SOCNET software, the values of the cluster coefficient were calculated and using the MATLAB software, Shannon entropy values for each team were calculated. The results showed that by increasing the number of training sessions, the values of the cluster and entropy coefficient of Shannon increased in both teams and there is a moderate correlation between the values of the cluster coefficient and Shannon entropy was observed with the number of training sessions. In general, and according to the results of this study, the functional variability of ball behavior patterns increased with training and team experience, and the level of complexity and unpredictability of the team network increased. According to the sensitivity of the behavioral patterns of the ball to the effects of training, sport analyzers can use the information from this level of analysis to explain the team's synergistic behaviors in futsal teams.
Ms Fateme Nokhostin Sham, Asbi, Dr Farhad Ghadiri, Dr Rasoul Yaali, Behzad Mohammadi Orangi,
Volume 100, Issue 100 (10-2020)
Abstract
Obesity is associated with a variety of diseases and efforts to reduce its problems are important. The purpose of this study was to comparison the effects of local native games (game-based interventions) and selected motor-based interventions (skill-based interventions) on the fundamental movement skill of preschool-aged obese girls in Tehran. This study was a semi-experimental with a pretest-posttest design. Thirty obese girls were selected in a targeted way. They divided into control groups, selective motor and local native games interventions. World Health Organization charts were used to determine the rate of obesity and the TGMD-3 test was used to measure the fundamental motor skill. Experimental groups practiced two sessions in week and per session one hour for nine weeks. The control group performed their usual activities during this period. Data were analyzed using covariance analysis. The results showed that there was a significant difference between groups at post-test (p = 0.000); analysis of variance and LSD test were used to examine differences between groups. The results showed that there was a significant difference between skill-based and game-based intervention groups in the TGMD-3 test in displacement scores. Whereas skill-based intervention had more effect than game-based intervention (P = 0.04), but the effect of two training methods for ball skill on the TGMD-3 test was not significantly different (P = 0.71). Also, both training groups had more effect on the dependent variables than the control group (p <0.05). Based on the results of the present study, it seems that both interventions are effective in reducing motor problems in obese children as both groups performed better in posttest than control group. This confirms the role of physical activity in reducing obesity in obese people. However, it is better to use selected motor interventions in accordance with the results of this study for movement skills.
